The past two decades have seen an explosion in research on noncoding RNAs and their physiological and pathological functions. (piRNAs). In addition we briefly review the relevance of small and long noncoding RNAs to human physiology and pathology and their potential to be exploited as therapeutic agents. Introduction For decades the major cellular function of RNA was considered to be an intermediate molecule in the transfer of genetic information from DNA to proteins. While transcription is usually a pervasive process and the majority of the genome is usually GSK2838232A transcribed (Clark et al. 2011 the scientific community was caught by a surprise when human genome sequencing revealed ~21 0 protein coding genes (Lander et al. 2001 a number that is much like less complex species such as each possess a single Dicer protein whereas the genome encodes two: Dicer-1 (Dcr-1) and Dicer-2 (Dcr-2) (Hutvagner et al. 2001 Grishok et al. 2001 Ketting et al. 2001 Knight and Bass 2001 Lee et al. GSK2838232A 2004 In contrast to mammals and Dcr-1 and Dcr-2 are dedicated to the production of miRNAs and siRNAs respectively (Lee et al. 2004 The siRNA duplexes created by Dicer activity bear 5′ phosphates and 3′ hydroxyl groups on both strands which are paired in a manner that leaves 2-nt overhangs at the 3′ ends (Physique 1). siRNAs are incorporated into multiprotein RNA-induced silencing complexes (RISCs) comprised of one of a family of Argonaute (AGO) proteins together with auxiliary proteins that lengthen or change the function of the AGO protein (Hammond et al. 2001 Caudy et al. 2002 Ishizuka et al. 2002 Zhou et al. 2008 One strand of the siRNA duplex the guideline strand is usually selectively retained in the siRISC and the second ‘passenger’ strand is usually discarded (Miyoshi et al. 2005 Rand et al. 2005 GSK2838232A Matranga et al. 2005 AGO proteins contain a PAZ (Piwi Argonaute Zwille) domain name and a Piwi domain name. The PAZ domain name accommodates the protruding 2-nt overhang of the siRNA duplex and the PIWI domain name which is usually structurally similar to the catalytic domain name of RNase H carries endoribonuclease (or slicer) activity (Track et al. 2003 Ma et al. 2004 Parker et al. 2005 Track et al. 2004 Wang et al. 2009 Wang et al. 2008 The AGO-bound siRNA guideline strand directs the siRISC CR2 to target mRNAs through complementary base pairing and the AGO PIWI domain name endonuclease activity precisely cuts the target RNA at the phosphodiester linkage between the nucleotides base paired to the 10th and 11th residues of the siRNA guideline strand. Among the four mammalian AGO proteins only AGO2 possesses such slicer activity whereas the Ago1 and Ago2 proteins carry poor and strong slicer activities respectively. AGO-mediated cleavage of target mRNAs generates products with 5′ monophosphates and 3′ hydroxyl termini which are further degraded by exoribonucleases. This frees the siRISC still made up of the siRNA guideline strand to engage and cleave additional target mRNAs. This sequence of events is usually shown schematically in Physique 1. Chemical modification and mutational analyses of siRNAs have established the essential role of A-helical geometry in siRNA-mediated gene silencing (Chiu and Rana 2002 Chiu and Rana 2003 Chu and Rana 2007 Rana 2007 High-resolution crystal structures of Ago bound to a guide strand and its target RNA further highlighted the significance of the A-form helix in RISC catalysis (Wang et al. 2009 Since RNA can fold into complex secondary and tertiary structures rates of RISC catalysis can be affected by the structure of target mRNA sequences because mRNA regions with strong secondary structures such as GSK2838232A hairpin and stem loops are resistant to targeting by RISCs (Brown et al. 2005 Schubert et al. 2005 Overhoff et al. 2005 Physique 1 GSK2838232A siRNA-mediated gene regulation Exo-siRNAs Depending on the source of dsRNA precursor siRNAs can be further divided into exogenous and endogenous siRNAs (exo- and endo-siRNAs respectively). The siRNA pathway is best comprehended in flies where exogenous dsRNAs are launched physiologically as genomic replication intermediates of invading RNA viruses. In but were later found in flies and mammals suggesting that they are common to most eukaryotes. Three classes of herb endo-siRNAs have been explained that originate from different sources: repression of target transcripts distinct from your tasiRNA locus of origin. natsiRNAs are produced as part of the stress response in plants (Katiyar-Agarwal et al. GSK2838232A 2006 Borsani et al. 2005 They are derived from a pair of endo-siRNAs were recognized by high-throughput sequencing of small RNAs from germline and somatic cells. They are derived.